HISTORY OF CONTEMPORARY FRANCE

1870-1900

BY

GABRIEL HANOTAUX

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France in 1870. The Imperial Policy of Nationalities leads up to the War with Prussia. The Government of National Defence. The Conclusion of the Armistice. France after the War. The Elections. The National Assembly at Bordeaux. M. Thiers Chief of the Executive of February 8, 1871

CHAPTER II

The Constitutional Crisis. The Government of M. Thiers. It is recognized by the Foreign Powers. Cabinet of February 19, 1871. First Administrative Measures. The Negotiation of the Preliminaries of Peace; their Ratification. Versailles the Capital. Disposition of the Monarchical Parties. The Comte de Chambord. The First Steps in View of Fusion. The Princes of Orleans elected Deputies. The Understanding of Biarritz. The Bordeaux Compact

CHAPTER III

The Causes of the Insurrection of March 18. The Revolutionary Parties and the Army of Disorder. The Central Committee and the International. The Prussians in Paris. The 18th of March. Retreat of the Government to Versailles. Vain Efforts at Conciliation. The Paris Elections, March 26; in the Provinces and Algeria. The National Assembly and the Commune. M. Thiers Declares for the Republic . The Versailles Army. The Second Siege of Paris. The Affairs of April 3 and 4. The Commune tries to Organize itself. Its Programme. The Committee of Public Safety . Forts Issy and Vanves taken. Entrance of the Troops into Paris, May 21. The Battle in the Streets. The Conflagrations. Execution of Hostages. Suppression of the Commune

CHAPTER IV

The Reconstitution of the Army ; Review of June 29, 1871. Legislative Work; the Municipal and Departmental Laws. The Parties. Sequel to the Fusion; The Dreux Agreement. Abrogation of the Laws of Exile and Validation of the Princes of Orleans. Supplementary Elections of July 2, 1871. The Comte de Chambord in France; Manifesto of July 5; The Question of the Flag. The Petition of the Bishops. Opening of the Gambetta Campaign against the Constituent Power of the National Assembly. The Rivet Constitution of August 31, 1871 .

CHAPTER V

Towards the Definitive Peace. Intentions of Germany and France. Mission of General von Fabrice, then of General von Manteuffel—Conventions annexed to the Preliminaries . The Brussels Conferences. How the Events of the Commune weigh upon the simultaneous Negotiations of Compiegne and Brussels. Check to the Conferences at Brussels. Interview at Frankfort between Bismarck and Jules Favre. German Ultimatum. The Definitive Peace signed at Frankfort, May 10, 1871 ; it aggravates the Clauses of the Preliminaries of Versailles. Debate on the Treaty of Frankfort in the National Assembly. Question of the Radius of Belfort—Ratification of the Treaty. France and Germany after the Peace. The Conferences of Frankfort. Delimitation of the New Frontier. Restoration of Diplomatic Relations between France and Germany. Mission of Saint-Vallier at Nancy

CHAPTER VI

General Balance Sheet of the War. The Two Milliard Loan. First Payments of the Indemnity. M. Pouyer-Quertier at Berlin. The Conventions of October 12, 1871. Beginning of the Evacuation of the German Troops. Debate and Vote on the New Taxes. The Elections to the General Councils, October 8, 1871. Bismarck’s Policy ; Reconciliation of Germany and Austro-Hungary. The Interviews at Itschl, Gastein and Salzburg between the two Emperors of Austria and Germany

CHAPTER VII

The Winter Session of the National Assembly. Message of December 7, 1871. Groups and Parties. Versailles and the National Assembly.The Orleans Princes in the Chamber. M. de Falloux and the question of the Flag. Fiscal Debates. First Resignation of M. Thiers. The Parliamentary Fusion. Bonapartist Propaganda. Budget of 1872. Gambetta in the Provinces ; M. Thiers in Pans

CHAPTER VIII

The Opening of the Session. Interpellations. Debate on the War Contracts. Inquiry upon the Capitulations ; Marshal Bazaine sent before a Council of War. Negotiations for Payment of three last Milliards of Indemnity. Discussions and Vote on the Army Bill, July 27, 1872. Convention of June 29. Budget of 1873. The Three Milliard Loan; Left Centre adheres to the Republic; Attempt at “Conjunction of the Centres ”; the Council of Nine; Manifestation of the “Bonnets a Poil”. The Holidays; M. Thiers at Trouville; Oratorical Campaign of Gambetta.Situation of Alsace-Lorraine. Agitation of Parties ; Expulsion of Prince Napoleon ; the Comte de Chambord and the Orlean Princes. Religious Manifestations. Elections of October 26, 1872

CHAPTER IX

Germany after the Victory; Bismarck’s Foreign Policy. Interview of the three Emperors. The Cultur-Kampf. The Winter Session. Message of M. Thiers, November 13, 1872 ; he declares for the Republic ; Protest of the Right ; the Committee of Fifteen : it decides to claim Ministerial Responsibility. The Committee of Thirty. Ministerial Changes. Debate on the Dissolution. The Government breaks with the Left. Legislative Work ; passing of various Laws ; the Property of the House of Orleans—Death of Napoleon III. Result of efforts with a view to Fusion. Letter of the Comte de Chambord to M. Dupanloup, February 8, 1873. The Roman Question. Negotiation for the anticipated Evacuation of the Territory. Count von Arnim and Bismarck. The Work of the Committee of Thirty. Restitution of Belfort. M. Thiers yields to the Committee. The Bill of the Thirty. M. Thiers is excluded from the Tribune. Convention of Liberation signed, March 15, 1873. The Assembly declares that M. Thiers has deserved well of the Country

CHAPTER X

Party Struggles. The War Contracts ; Attacks on M. Challemel- Lacour. The Municipal Government of Lyons. Petition of Prince Napoleon on the Subject of his Expulsion ; Compact between the three Monarchical Parties. Resignation of M. Grevy ; M. Buffet President of the National Assembly. The Elections of April 27, 1873 ; M. Barodet elected in Paris. Fresh Elections, May 11. Resignation of MM. Jules Simon and De Goulard. Meetings for the Choice of a Candidate for the Presidency ; an Agreement upon the name of Marshal MacMahon. M. Thiers remoulds his Ministry. Interpellation of the Right. M. Thiers brings forward Bills relative to the Organization of the Public Powers. Sitting of May 23 ; Speeches of De Broglie and Dufaure. Sittings of May 24 ; Speech of M. Thiers ; Declaration of Casimir-Perier; The Target Group. M. Thiers, put in a Minority, Resigns. Marshal MacMahon elected President of the Republic-Conclusion

BOOK II

1873-1875

CHAPTER I . THE 24TH OF MAY

I. —Impression produced by the fall of M. Thiers and the election of Marshal MacMahon. The new President of the Republic : his military career in Algeria, in the Crimea, in Italy. Marshal MacMahon at Sedan. Suppression of the Commune. Marshal MacMahon and politics : his character.

II. —The Cabinet of the 25th of May : its policy. Message of the Marshal-President: circular of the Vice-President of the Council to the diplomatic agents. Divine Right and the Sovereignty of the People. The Constitutional question. The three Monarchical parties

III.—The Due de Broglie ; his politics ; his character. The Conservative party. Democratic ideals

IV.—Leon Gambetta ; his origin, and intellectual development. Gambetta under the Empire, and during the war. He is returned to the National Assembly. Gambetta as an orator

CHAPTER II “ Moral Order ”

I. —The session of the National Assembly resumed. Incident raised by Bismarck. The Paschal circular. First acts of the cabinet. Moral Order

II. —The Le Royer interpellation. The religious question. Pilgrimages. The cult of the Sacred Heart. The votive Church of Montmartre

III. —The Shah of Persia in Paris. Celebrations in his honour. Opening of the monarchical Campaign. Adjournment of the Examination of the Constitutional Laws

IV. —Measures taken against Republican Propaganda. Special Powers given to the Permanent Committee. Gambetta at Grenoble. The Left Centre declares for Dissolution

V. —Reorganisation Laws passed during the Summer Session—General Law of Army Reorganisation, July 24th, 1873— The Assembly adjourned from July 29th to November 5th —Message of Marshal MacMahon and Manifesto of the Groups of the Left

VI. —Liberation of the Territory. Last Incidents of the German Occupation. Payment of the Balance of the War Indemnity. The Evacuation completed on the 16th of September

CHAPTER III. THE MONARCHICAL CAMPAIGN

I. —Hopes of the Monarchists after May 24th. The Comte de Paris at Frohsdorf. Reconciliation of the two branches of the House of Bourbon—. Differences between Orleanists and Legitimists

II. —The Country and the Monarchical Campaign. Meeting of the Permanent Committee, August 25th. Question from the Due d’Audiffret-Pasquier on the Possibility of the Restoration. Mission of Merveilleux du Vignaux and de Sugny to Frohsdorf. Note from the Comte de Chambord to M. Emoul and letter from the same to M. de Rodez-Benavent . Meeting of the Permanent Committee, September 25th. A Meeting of the Executive of the Four Groups of the Right is fixed for October 4th. Combier Mission to Frohsdorf

CHAPTER IV. THE SALZBURG INTERVIEW

I.—The Meeting of October 4th. Constitution of the Committee of Nine. The Quai d’Orsay Dinner. First Meeting of the Committee of Nine. The Army and the Tricolor. M. Chesnelong deputed by the Committee to visit the Comte de Chambord

II.—The Parties and the Restoration. The Elections of October 12th. The Left organises Opposition

III.—M. Chesnelong at Salzburg. His Interviews with the Comte de Chambord. The Salzburg Declarations

CHAPTER V. THE LETTER OF OCTOBER 27TH

I.—Meetings of the Committee of Nine, and of the Executives of the Group. M. Chesnelong reports on his Mission. It is Decided to Propose the Restoration.

II. —The Government and the Restoration. Preparations for the King’s Return—Incredulity of the Country. The Lefts organise Resistance. The Army

III. —Meeting of the Groups of the Rights. Report of the Right Centre. The Left Centre declares that the Restoration would bring about a Fresh Revolution. Anxiety respecting the silence of the Comte de Chambord. The Letter of October 27th. Did the Comte de Chambord wish to reign ?

IV. —Last Meeting of the Committee of Nine. The Monarchical Campaign abandoned. The Council of Ministers declares for the Extension of the Marshal’s Powers. Public Opinion and the Parties

CHAPTER VI. THE SEPTENNATE

I. —Combined Meeting of the Groups of the Right. Attitude of the Orleans Princes. The Extreme Right. The Prolongation to be proposed by the Rights

II. —Opening of the Parliamentary Session. The DuC de Broglie proposes the Septennate. Message of the President of the Republic. Changamier Proposal. The Comte de Chambord at Versailles. M. de Blacas with the Marshal. The Marshal refuses to see the Comte de Chambord

III.—The Report of the Committee on the Changarnier Proposal. Debate on the Prolongation. New Presidential Message. The Septennate is Voted

IV.—Consequences of the Vote. Difficulties of the Extreme Right. The Comte de Chambord leaves Versailles

CHAPTER VII. THE SECOND BROGLIE CABINET

I.—What was the Septennate?. Interpellation on the Non-convocation of the Electoral Colleges : Vote of the Order of the Day Pure and Simple. Resignation of the Cabinet. The DucDecazes. Constitution of the Second Broglie Cabinet. Its Precarious Position. of the Committee of Thirty

II. —The Budget of 1874. Financial System of M. Magne. The New Taxes

III. —The Trial and Condemnation of Marshal Bazaine. Character of the Sentence. Was Bazaine a Traitor?

CHAPTER VIII. ARMED PEACE AND THE INTERNATIONAL KULTURKAMPF

I.—Europe and the new German Empire. Prince Bismarck and French Domestic Politics. The “ Armed Peace ” System. The “ Kulturkampf ” and German Unity. Germany and the “ White Policy ”

II.—Emperor William at St. Petersburg. The Czar at Vienna. Victor Emmanuel at Vienna and Berlin. Germany and the Monarchical Campaign. William I at Vienna

III. —The Duc Decazes, Minister of Foreign Affairs. Rome and the International Kulturkampf. Incident of the Episcopal Mandates. A War feared. German Military Septennate. Reichstag Elections in Alsace-Lorraine. Protest against Annexation

IV. —New Apprehensions caused by German Armaments—Spanish Affairs—The Emperor of Austria at St. Petersburg —Europe and the “ Armed Peace ” System

V- Accession of the Disraeli Cabinet. A Change in British Policy. The Czar’s Travels in Europe. Germany and the Eastern Question. Prince Hohenlohe an Ambassador in Paris. The European Situation in May 1874

VI.—Inauguration of a “World Policy”. Russia in Central Asia. Annam and Tonkin Incidents. Chinese Affairs. The Ashantee War. Great Britain and the Suez Canal. Great International Works

CHAPTER IX. FALL OF THE DUC DE BROGLIE

I. —The Session resumed. Discussion of the Majority of the24th of May. The Mayors’ Act: its Application. Explanation of the Marshal concerning the Duration of his Powers. Resistance. Elections of February 27th and March 1st, 1874. Bonapartist Manifestations on the Occasion of the Prince Imperial’s Birthday

II. —The Republican Party. The Gambetta-Lepere Interpellation ; M. Challemel-Lacour’s Speech. The Duc de Broglie declares the Septennate to be “Incommutable”. Rupture with the Extreme Right. M. Thiers. Dissolution Proposed. Easter Holidays. Elections of March 29th, 1874

III. —Laws of Reorganisation. The Liquidation Accounts. Water-ways. Military Administration. The Frontier Problem. Two Eastern Lines of Fortifications. Paris Fortifications

IV. —The Summer Session- The Duc de Broglie’s Constitutional Projects. Representation of “Interests”. Universal Suffrage “Expurgated”. Organisation of Legislative and Executive Powers. The Bills on Municipal Electorate and Political Electorate. Bill for the Creation of a Second Chamber. Fall of the Due de Broglie : Its Causes and Consequences

CHAPTER X.THE RECOVERY—THE ADVENT OF DEMOCRACY

I. —Optimism of the French People—Impression produced on it by the War of 1870. The Soil of France. Patriotism. National Unity

II. —Prosperous Years. Weather Conditions. Production. Harvests. Industry. Commerce. Abundance. Wages. Public Wealth. Rapid Material Recovery

III. —The Population. The Classes in French Society : the Middle Class. The People. The “New Strata”. Advent of Democracy

CHAPTER XI. LETTERS. OPINION. THE PRESS

I.—Literature after 1870. Principal Characteristics of the Times. Surviving Influences: Auguste Comte, Balzac, Victor Hugo, Michelet, George Sand

II.—Realism. Consequences of the War. Perplexity and Disillusions. Renan. Taine. Flaubert. The Drama : Alexandre Dumas fils, Victorien Sardou, Henri de Bornier

III. —The Novel. Naturalism. Emile Zola. Alphonse Daudet. Poets. The contemporary Parnassus. Leconte de Lisle. Sully-Prudhomme. Jose-Maria de Heredia. Francois Coppee

IV. —Educational Literature. Foundation of the School of Political Science. Democratic Literature. Serial Publications. Magazines and Illustrated Papers

V. —Opinion. The Press. Newspaper regime. Great Political Party Papers. The Popular Press. The Halfpenny Newspaper. The Provincial Press

CHAPTER XII. ARTS.SCIENCE

I.—French Art after the War. The Art of Cities. Architecture. Sculpture. Painting

II—Music. The Influence of Wagner. The French School

III—Science. Scientific work in France. Higher Science. The Principle of “Unity”. Astronomy. Mathematics. Mechanics. Physics. Chemistry. Organic Chemistry : Berthelot. Physiology : Claude Bernard. Natural History. Anthropology and Paleontology. The Problem of Life. Pasteur. Microbiology. Cosmic Forces. Darwinism. Evolution. Medicine and Hygiene

CHAPTER XIII. THE MORAL CRISIS

I. —The Moral Law and Society. Three risks : Religious, Economic, and Patriotic. Authority and Liberty. Religion. Inner and Outer Crisis of Catholicism. Catholic France. Symptoms of Disaffection

II. —Free-thought. Philosophical Systems. Philosophical Opportunism. Ethical Systems

III. —Economics. Saint-Simonism. The “Orthodox” School. Economic Ethics. Disadvantages and Benefits of Economics

IV. —Morality without Sanction. The “Generous” Man. Non constraint. Religion of the Fatherland. Theory of Opportunism

BOOK III

(1875-1877)

CHAPTER I. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY AND UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE

I. Relative Position of the Parties at the Fall of the First Broglie Cabinet. Failure of the Goulard Combination. Formation of the Cissey-Fourtou Cabinet, 12th May, 1874. The Bonapartist Party. Parliamentary Electorate, Municipal Electorate ; First Reading of the Bill. Universal Suffrage. Union of the Centres

II. The Bonapartist Danger. The Lefts accept the Constituent Power. Second Reading of the Municipal Electorate Bill. Constitutional Proposals.—First Republican victory; Urgency voted on the Casimir-Perier Proposal. First Reading of the Municipal Organisation Bill

III. The Comte de Chambord’s Manifesto, 2nd July, 1874. The Lucien Brun Interpellation. The Cissey Cabinet beaten. Message from the Marshal, 9th July, 1874

IV. Ministerial Constitutional Programme. Bill of the Committee of Thirty. The Casimir-Perier Motion Discussed and Rejected. Adjournment of the Constitutional Debate. The State of Siege Maintained. The Assembly adjourns from the 5th August to the 30th November, 1874

CHAPTER II.THE SEPTENNATE—FRANCE AND EUROPE

I. Practical Activity of the Assembly. The Budget of 1875. Various Military Measures. Great Public Works. The Phylloxera. Social Questions and Parliamentary Inquiry on Labour. The Roussel Law on Child Protection. Reform of the Baccalaurat

II. External Politics. German Diplomacy in 1874. The Ischl Meetings. The Kissingen Affair and the Ultramontane Question. The Decree of Cardinal Guibert. Recall of the Orenoques. A German Intervention Feared. Difficulties between Paris and Madrid. The Alfonsist Restoration. Rivalry between Prince Gortschakoff and Prince Bismarck. Eastern Affairs. First outlines of a Franco-Russian Alliance. Attitude of Great Britain. The Suez Canal and the Egyptian Question. The Tonquin Affair. Policy of the United States. International Arbitration. The Brussels Conference and International Law. International Sanitary Police

III. Society in 1874. Parliamentary Holidays. The Marshal’s Journeys. Parliamentary Bye-elections. Departmental and Municipal Elections. Return of the Assembly. Position of Parties. Presidential Message. First Reading of the Law on Higher Education. The Assembly Votes for a Parliamentary Inquiry on Bonapartist Proceedings

CHAPTER III.THE REPUBLIC FOUNDED

I. Preparations for the Debate on the Constitution. The Committee of Thirty takes the Initiative. Conference at Elysée. Parliamentary Session Resumed. Message from the President (5th January, 1875). The Government demands Priority for the Senate Bill. It is refused : Resignation of the Cabinet. Provisional arrangements

II. First Reading of the Bill for the Organisation of Public Powers. First Debate on the Bill for the Creation of a Senate

III. Second Debate on the Bill for the Organisation of Public Powers. Sittings of the 28th, 29th, and 30th January. Solemn Debate on Clause I. M. Laboulaye’s Amendment. M. Louis Blanc intervenes. The Laboulaye Amendment is rejected. The Wallon Amendment. Negotiations of the Lavergne Group. M. Desjardins’ Proposition is rejected. The Wallon Amendment is voted by a Majority of One. Consequences of that Vote

IV. Second Debate on the Public Powers Bill continued. Dissolution and the Revision of Constitutional Laws suggested. The Seat of Public Powers remains fixed at Versailles. Second Debate on the Senate Bill. The Pascal Duprat Amendment voted. Declarations of the Committee of Thirty and of the Government. Dissolution demanded. General confusion

V. The Right offers the Dictatorship to the Marshal. The Duc de Broglie refuses to form a Cabinet. The Right against M. Buffet. The Lavergne Group intervenes between the Two Centres. The Marshal gives up the right to appoint Life Senators.—Agreement concluded. The Senate Law and the Public Powers Law carried

CHAPTER IV.THE BUFFET CABINET AND THE 1875 SCARE

I. Parliamentary Inquiry into the Bonapartist Plot. Bye-elections. The Cissey Cabinet resigns. Formation of the Buffet Ministry. The Duc d’Audiffret-Pasquier President of the Assembly. Uncertain Policy of M. Buffet. The Assembly adjourns from the 20th March to the 11th May. Gambetta’s Mdnilmontant Speech

II. The 1875 Scare. Germany and Europe. German Press Campaign against France. Rumours of War.—The Due Decazes appeals to the Powers. M. de Gontaut-Biron and Herr v. Radowitz. Steps taken by Count Schuwaloff at Berlin. Prince Hohenlohe and the Due Decazes. An article in the Times. England, Austria and Italy intervene. Change of front in Germany. The Czar in Berlin. Russian Circular to the Powers ; peace secured. Conclusions to be drawn from the 1875 incident

III. The National Assembly resumes its sittings. Bye-elections suppressed. Complementary Constitutional Bills. The New Committee of Thirty. The Higher Education Bill. The Nievre election and the Committee of the Appeal to the People. M. Buffet and the Left. The Organic Law on the relations between Public Powers and the Senatorial Electoral Law carried. The 1876 Budget. The Assembly adjourns from the 4th August to the 4th November, 1875

CHAPTER V.THEORY OF THE CONSTITUTION

I. General character of the Constitution of 1875. Analogy between it and the American Constitution

II. Precedents. French Constitutions since the Revolution. Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Condorcet. Constitutional experiments of the Revolution. Imperial Dictatorship. Return to the Legitimity. Popular Sovereignty imposed upon the Restoration. Antinomies of the 1848 Constitution. Advent of Democratic Caesarism. Democracy and the Republic .

III. Doctrines : Aug. Comte, Proudhon, Tocqueville, Duc de Broglie, Provost-Paradol. Theories of Parliamentarism. Influence of political literature on the National Assembly. Decentralisation

IV. Theory of the Constitution. Popular Sovereignty. The law of majorities. Universal Suffrage. The Rights of Ministers. National Unity. Unity and Liberty reconciled. Hatred of Personal Power. A Representative System. A Parliamentary Republic. Two Chambers. The Presidency of the Republic. The Cabinet. Reign of public opinion. History and the Constitution of 1875. Its Merits and Defects

CHAPTER VI. THE DEATH-THROES OF THE ASSEMBLY

I. The Summer Vacation, August 1874. The Conservative Policy of M. Buffet becomes marked. Ministerial Dissensions. Instructions from the Comte de Chambord. M. Rouher’s Speech. M. Thiers at Arcachon. Letter from Gambetta to the Democrats of Lyons

II. Last Session of the National Assembly. The Legislative Electoral Law. Gambetta breaks with the Right Centre. M. Buffet reconstitutes the Majority of the 24th May. The Law of the 30th November, 1875, is passed. Electoral Districts

III. Election of Life Senators. First Ballot; the Right and the Left neutralise each other. Compact between the Extreme Right, the Bonapartists, and the Left. The 75 Life Senators

IV. Death-Throes of the Assembly. The Committee of Pardons. Proposal of Amnesty. Martial Law and the Regime of the Press. Relative Position of the Parties. Last Days of the Assembly. Dissolution. Criticism on the National Assembly

CHAPTER VII. FRANCE AND THE ELECTIONS OF 1876

I. Universal Suffrage. The Nation and the Parties. Electoral Organisatio. The Cabinet and the Elections. Composition of the Senate

II. Legislative Elections. Candidates and Programmes. Gambetta leads the Campaign ; Speeches at Lille, Bordeaux and Paris. The Ballot of the 21st February, 1876, is favourable to the Republic

III. M. Buffet Resigns ; M. Dufaure is provisionally entrusted with the Presidency of the Council. Gambetta’s Speech at Lyons. Second Ballots. Composition of the Chamber of Deputies. Formalities for the Transmission of Powers. Early Sittings of the Chamber and of the Senate

CHAPTER VIII.THE FIRST DUFAURE CABINET

I. First Session. The Majority. M. Dufaure, his Character and Situation. Constitution of the Dufaure Cabinet. The Ministerial Address. Divisions in the Majority. Tactics of the Extreme Left. Gambetta Chairman of the Finance Committee. First Republican Laws

II. Administrative Changes. Death of M. Ricard; M. de Marc^re succeeds him. Debate on the Amnesty. Supplementary Elections. The right of Revision discussed by the Senate. Modification by the Chamber of the Higher Education Law. M. Buffet is made a Life Senator

III. Party Excitement. The Mayors’ Law Voted by the Chamber. Jules Ferry and Gambetta disagree. Rejection by the Senate of the amended Education Bill. Conflict between the two Chambers. The 1877 Budget. General de Cissey resigns and is succeeded by General Berthaut. End of the ordinary Session. Holidays. Bye-Elections. Marshal MacMahon at the Army Manoeuvres

IV. The Vatican Incident. France and Italy. Political Speeches. The Paris Labour Congress. The Extraordinary Session of 1876. Cessation of Prosecutions subsequent to the Commune. Fiscal Reform. The Budget. M. Chesnelong becomes a Life Senator. The Senate rejects the Bill on the Commune Prosecutions. Fall of the Dufaure Ministry

CHAPTER IX.THE JULES SIMON CABINET AND THE 16TH MAY

I. Reasons for the fall of the Dufaure Ministry. Last efforts to bring about the Union of the Centres. Ministerial Crisis. The Jules Simon Ministry. M. Jules Simon and the Chamber. Cold Reception from the Left. M. Jules Simon and M. Gambetta. The Financial Rights of the Senate. The 1877 Budget voted

II. First Acts of the Chamber. The Administrative Personnel. Reopening of the Session. Momentary calm. Policy of the Left Centre. Gambetta re-elected Chairman of the Budget Committee. Tactics of the Extreme Left. Difficult position of M. Jules Simon. Ministerial Incidents. Republican Programme

III. The Religious Question. Pope Pius IX and M. Jules Simon. Easter Holidays

IV. Interpellation concerning Ultramontane Intrigues. Speeches from MM. Jules Simon and Gambetta

V. The Marshal decides to break with the Left Majority. The Municipal Organisation Law and the Press Law

VI. The Letter of the 16th May. Resignation of the Cabinet.—The President’s Policy

BOOK IV

1877-1890

CHAPTER I. THE SIXTEENTH OF MAY

I.—Impression produced by the Act of May 16th.Reconciliation among the members of the Left. Interpellation in the Chamber; speech by Gambetta. Constitution of the Broglie Cabinet. Presidential message ; adjournment. Manifesto from the Left. Attitude of the Legitimists and of the Bonapartists. Position of the Government

II. —Between the Sessions.Ministerial announcements, and administrative movements. The Marshal at Compiegne. Part played by Thiers. Speech by Gambetta. The provinces. Refusal of the Budget by the Left

III. —Re-opening of the Session. Second presidential message. The Marshal demands of the Senate the dissolution of the Chamber. The declaration of the Government to the Chamber. Interpellation. M. de Fourtou. “The Deliverer of the Land”. Rally of the Republicans. Dissolution in the Senate-house. Speeches by the Duke de Broglie, by M. Berenger and M. Laboulaye.Dissolution voted. Promulgation of the law . 28

CHAPTER II THE EASTERN QUESTION

I.—The new European politics. Importance of France in the European system. Consequences of the German hegemony upon general politics. The role of Russia, Austria, Germany and the East. Beginning of the new Oriental crisis. Troubles in Herzegovina. Russia appeals to France for help. The struggle between Slavonism and Germanism. Intervention of England. Tactics of Prince Bismarck and of Prince Gortschakoff. Russia makes overtures to France. The programme of Pesth, or programme of the three emperors

II. —Origin of the Eastern question. The rayas. Turkish reform and Christian reform. The Russian crusade Traditional policy of the Powers in the East. The Crimean War, Treaty of Paris, the Hatti-Humayoun of 1856. Situation on the eve of the war of 1870

III. —The two chancellors. Bismarck and Gortschakoff. Russia opens the Oriental crisis. Attitude of England. Disraeli and the East

IV. —Recrudescence of disorder. Turkish armaments. The Memorandum of Berlin. Non-adherence of England. General embarrassment. The meeting at Ems. France seeks conciliation. Bismarck as the holder of the threads. Convention of Reichstadt. Struggle of Servia and Montenegro against Turkey. Defeat of the Servians. The Bulgarian atrocities. English opinion and Disraeli. Rise of Abdul Hamid. Bismarck pronounces for Austria and opposes England to Russia. Russia unready. The conference at Constantinople. Ultimatum of Europe against Turkey. Turkish mobilisation. The Protocol of London. War inevitable

CHAPTER III . THE ELECTIONS OF OCTOBER 14TH, 1877

I.—Preparations for the electoral campaign. Official candidature. Its practices. The Marshal placed in the van. Declaration to the troops. Presidential journeys to Bourges and in Normandy. The Republican party acts aggressively .Union of the 363. Speech by Gambetta. “Submission or resignation”. Gambetta prosecuted Polemics among the Conservatives. The Elections delayed

II. The Clerical question. Crisis of the temporal power. Injunctions from the Pope to Roman Catholics. The Vatican and May 16th. The Jubilee of 1877. Feeling in Italy. Bismarck’s attitude towards the Clerical question. Crispi in France and Germany. German menaces. The Lefts denounce the danger

III—Death of M. Thiers. His funeral. Jules Grevy nominated as leader of the Republican party. The Marshal’s journey to Bordeaux and in the West. Manifesto of September 19th. The electoral campaign. Official action and Republican effort—Governmental optimism

IV.—The elections of October 14th. Defeat of the Government. Position of the Ministry and the Marshal. The balloting. Composition of the new Chamber. Survival of the Ministry. Departmental elections. New Republican victory. Constitution of the Committee of the Eighteen. Excitement. Opening of Parliament. Inquiry as to May 16th. Unsuccessful appeal of the Ministry to the Senate. Fall of the Broglie Cabinet

V.—The Rochebouet Cabinet. Refusal of the Chamber to deal with the Ministry. Refusal of the Budget. M. Dufaure summoned to the Elysee. Non-agreement of the Marshal to his conditions. M. Batbie asked to form a resisting Ministry. General excitement. The Committee of the Fifteen refuses to support M. Batbie, and the Marshal refuses to proclaim the state of siege. Extreme advice of Gambetta rejected by Jules Grevy. The Laborddre incident. Failure of M. Batbie. The Marshal agrees to summon M. Dufaure

CHAPTER IV . THE SECOND DUFAURE CABINET AND THE LIBERAL PARTY

I.—Constitution of the Second Dufaure Cabinet. Presidential message. Change in the administrative staff. The municipal elections. General session of 1878. Public works. The Terminal Three per cents. The economic question

II. —Parliamentary work. The Senatorial majority. The Budget of 1878. Vote of amnesty at the Senate .

III. —Death of Victor Emmanuel and of Pius IX. Projected interview between Prince Bismarck and Gambetta. Visit of Gambetta to Rome. Election of Leo XIII

IV. —Continuation of the General Session of 1878. Various Bills and Acts. The Universal Exhibition

CHAPTER V . THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR, AND THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN

I. —Russia decides on war. Home and foreign situation of Russia. Defensive force of Turkey. The Powers in presence of war. Anglo-Russian arrangement. The Balkan countries. Roumania concedes a passage to the Russian troops. The role of France. The Austro-German agreement

II. —The war. The raid of Gourko. Russian difficulties. Impression in Europe. Roumania enters the lists. Surrender of Plevna and taking of Kars. The Russians at Adrianople. The veto of Great Britain. The armistice. The Russians at San Stefano. Intervention of Prince Bismarck. Germany as l’honnete courtier. The Treaty of San Stefano. The Schouwaloff-Salisbury convention. Programme of the Congress. The European missions. France accepts the invitation. Her reservations

III—The Congress. The tactics of Prince Bismarck. Renewal of the Anglo-Russian differences. Work of the Congress in Europe and Asia. Germanic expansion in the Balkans. Satisfaction to the Powers. The Convention of Cyprus and the Egyptian question. Tunis opened to France. Birth of World-Policy

CHAPTER VI . RESIGNATION OF MARSHAL MACMAHON. PRESIDENCY OF JULES FERRY

I.—Socialism again to the fore. Collectivism—Christian Socialism. Roman Catholic workmen’s clubs

II—The vacations of 1878. The Ministry and the Old Republicans . Oratorical campaign of Gambetta in Le Dauphiné. The extraordinary session. Invalidations. The Budget of 1879

III. —The Senatorial elections of January, 1879. Republican victory. The Senat interpellation. The Cabinet victorious but bound. Difficult position of Gambetta. Resignation of Marshal MacMahon. M. Jules Grevy elected President of the Republic

IV. —M. Jules Grevy and his origin. In 1848. Jules Grevy and Lamartine. The presidency of the National Assembly. Jules Grevy and Gambetta. The ideal of France. The ideal for the presidency. The election of M. Grevy a mistake

CHAPTER VII . THE WADDINGTON-FERRY CABINET- ARTICLE VII. THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE

I. —Jules Grevy at the Elysee. Formation of the Waddington Cabinet. Gambetta President of the Chamber. The Amnesty—Scholastic reform. M. Lepdre Minister for the Interior. Vote of censure against May the Sixteenth

II. —The sifting of the administrative staff. Continuation of the Session. The Senate votes the return of the Chambers to Paris. Death of the Prince Imperial. The Law on Secondary Instruction. The Law on Ecoles Normales. First celebration of July 14th. The Budget of 1880. Execution of the Plan Freycinet

III. —The results of the Berlin Congress. Bulgaria, Greece, Egypt. The genesis of the Triple Alliance. The interview of Alexandrovo and the meeting at Gastein The Austro-German treaty of alliance. Leo XIII and Prince Bismarck

IV. —Papal instructions to the bishops in France Mgr. Czacki Nuncio in Paris. The Republican party and religious policy. Jules Simon and Article Seven General political situation. Fall of the Waddington Cabinet

CHAPTER VIII. THE FIRST FREYCINET ADMINISTRATION. THE DECREES

I. —Formation of the Freycinet Administration. —Its position with regard to the Chambers. The integral amnesty opposed. Rejection of Article VII by the Senate. Promulgation of the law on higher education

II. —The “decrees” (March 29th-3oth, 1880). The summer session. M. Constans as Minister for the Interior. The tariff policy of France. M. Leon Say in London

III. —Difficult position of the Cabinet. Debate upon the decrees in the Senate. Expulsion of the Jesuits. Gambetta against the Ministry. Passing of the Amnesty Bill. Parliamentary work. The festivities at Cherbourg. Resignation of de Freycinet

CHAPTER IX. FIRST MINISTRY OF JULES FERRY—THE SCHOOL— LAWS THE CAMPAIGN IN TUNIS

I—Jules Ferry and Gambetta. The Ferry administration. The Cissey “ scandals ”. Defeat of the Government over the Magistrates’ Bill and its reinstallation

II.—School Reforms—. Gratuitous instruction. Compulsory and undenominational instruction. M. Paul Bert. Some results of the “Lois Ferry”. The Budget of 1881

III. —The position of Gambetta. The situation in the Balkans . England and Germany. Gladstone in office. Montenegro. Naval demonstration off Dulcigno. Difficulties of the Government. Tunis

IV. —The Church and the Royalists. Secularisation of Hospitals. The Scrutin de liste. Gambetta at Cahors. Trade Syndicates. Tours

V. —Difficulties in Tunis and Algeria. Bou Amama. The Campaign. Taking of Sfax and Gabes. The new Radical Party. Capture of Khairouan

CHAPTER X. THE GAMBETTA ADMINISTRATION

I. —Reopening of Parliament. Inquiries on the Tunis question. Formation of the Gambetta Ministry. Difficulties. Weiss and Miribel. Gambetta’s relations with the new Chamber

II. —The situation abroad. The Triple Alliance. Egyptian affairs. The revolt of Arabi Pacha and the Anglo-French Condominium. Gambetta and Great Britain

III. —Activity of the Ministry. Projected reforms. Public opinion. Triennial renewal of the Senate. The revision of the Constitution and the Scrutin de liste. Defeat of the Government. Resignation of the Gambetta Ministry. The second Freycinet Administration. Death of Gambetta. Conclusion

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE

TO introduce M. Gabriel Hanotaux to Frenchmen would be superfluous; his name is already well known in his own country as that of a leading statesman and an author of high reputation. In England he is chiefly known as a Minister of Foreign Affairs who smoothed the path of diplomacy during the troubled period of the wars between Turkey and Greece, Spain and the United States of America. He also took an active part in settling questions as to delimitation of frontier in North Africa which had arisen between France and England; during his period of office the Madagascar expedition was decided upon.

Born in 1854, M. Hanotaux is still a comparatively young man, but he has behind him a political and literary career upon which older men would be entitled to look back with complacency. He is still engaged upon a monumental life of Cardinal Richelieu which has already won for him the Gobert prize, the highest honour which can be bestowed by the French Academy ; since 1897 he has been an Academician. His more popular works, L’Energie Française, and Le Choix d’une Carrière, are marked by an ardent patriotism, and strong common sense ; they have been exceptionally well received in France.

In fact M. Hanotaux, alike by his administrative career and his proved literary competence, is singularly well qualified to overcome the difficulties of the great work of which the present volume is the first instalment. He is a keen patriot, but he is a wise patriot; he is a convinced Republican, but though he announces his Republican sympathies in his preface, his literary conscience has proved sufficiently robust to eliminate any excess of political partizanship from his narrative.

J. C. T.

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AUTHOR’S PREFACE

I HAVE undertaken to narrate the History of Contemporary France from the month of February 1871 to the end of the year 1900.

The present volume comprises, along with the Government of M. Thiers, the end of the Franco- German War, the Peace Negotiations, the Commune, the Constitutional Crisis, the Debates in the National Assembly, the Liberation of the Territory. It concludes with the 24th of May, 1873.

The second volume will be devoted to the Presidency of Marshal MacMahon, and the Foundation of the Republic.

The third and fourth volumes will deal with the History of the Parliamentary Republic.

I have made an arrangement so that the four volumes may follow one another in rapid succession.

The subject is vast and difficult. But I have seen the facts which I set forth. This work, moreover, is connected with the works which I have begun or published, and which all have, like the present book, but one object : France.

If I tried to go back to the real origin of this book, I should find it in the events with which the story begins : the war of 1870 and its immediate consequences. I was at that time sixteen. The generation to which I belong was barely emerging from childhood : it saw everything, its intellect was matured by that cruel spectacle. I came to Paris to begin my studies some months after the Commune. The city was dejected, and there were traces of hidden agitation.

From that time pressing questions arose in me : What had been the causes of the greatness of France in the past ? What were the causes of her defeat ? What would be the moving forces in her approaching resurrection ?

My manhood has applied itself to the solution of the problems put by my youth. It has sometimes allowed itself to be diverted from its studies, but has never lost sight of them.

If our existence were not so short and fleeting we should review it again and again to reflect upon the lessons which it gives. In the haste to live we neglect too often the reasons for living. The events of which we have been spectators, in which we have taken part, are not studied by us. A people, still less even than a man, can return to its past of yesterday and profit by the sole effective experience, that which comes from contact with reality.

Every day the democracy is required to settle the most arduous problems, and fails to remember that they have been raised a hundred times already, and that the answer has already been given by itself, only yesterday.

Conscious of this lack of information, I have applied myself to contemporary history, and in spite of the perils of the subject, I have decided to write it from henceforth.

I will borrow an expression from the profession which has long been my own : this book might be the “dossier” of the Democracy. I have proposed to myself to lay before the Democracy in the forthcoming pages a sufficient quantity of definite information, of documents which have been checked, of precedents which have been verified. I would wish the Democracy to pause one moment for reflection, and to consider its own acts and deeds, which in proportion as they are left behind become history.

Henri Martin wrote a Popular History of France. I continue his work and follow his example. Perhaps the circumstance will be remarked that in one and the same family two generations will have worked upon the same task in succession.

Writing for a Democracy, I was bound to aim at clearness, simplicity, rapidity; to my readers I owed good faith and impartiality. However there could be no question of parting company with myself, and my life says plainly enough that in political matters, which are the chief subject of history, I have taken sides : I am a Republican.

I could have wished this work to be more complete without being longer, more exact without being more minute. But the facts of contemporary history are often without sufficient explanation, its motives difficult to disentangle or express.

I shall welcome eagerly and gratefully—need I say so ?—fresh information, corrections, criticisms, which may be addressed to me.

It remains to thank those who have helped me in the preparation of this first volume. In the first place my friend and careful secretary and collaborator, M. Henri Girard, whose unwearied labour has accompanied me from my first note to the last sheet of the proofs ; then many persons whose liberality has showered upon me documents, information, reminiscences, advice.

To these kindly communications, I have owed precious collections proceeding from M. Thiers, even before they had been delivered, with discretion, to the public. I owe much to the memory of men who played a leading part in the events : Gambetta, Jules Ferry, Challemel-Lacour, Spuller : their conversations and their stories have remained present in my thoughts. I owe much to M. Pallain, who knows so many things, and tells them so gracefully ; to my colleague, M. le Comte Othenin d’Haussonville, who was so good as to entrust to me the unpublished Journal of his father, Comte d’Haussonville ; to General the Marquis d’Abzac; to my colleague, M. Leopold Delisle ; to my excellent comrade, M. Mortreuil, general secretary of the National Library ; to my friend, M. Pierre Bertrand, librarian at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ; to M. Paul Hebert. I should never come to an end if I wished to mention all. May I be at least permitted lastly to thank the courageous publishers, who have not hesitated to follow me in this vast and difficult undertaking.

G. H.